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What we now know of as environmentalism began with the establishment of the first empire forest in 1855 in British India, and during the second half of the nineteenth century, over ten per cent of the land surface of the earth became protected as a public trust. Sprawling forest reservations, many of them larger than modern nations, became revenue-producing forests that protected the whole 'household of nature', and Rudyard Kipling and Theodore Roosevelt were among those who celebrated a new class of government foresters as public heroes. Imperial foresters warned of impending catastrophe, desertification and global climate change if the reverse process of deforestation continued. The empire forestry movement spread through India, Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and then the United States to other parts of the globe, and Gregory Barton's study looks at the origins of environmentalism in a global perspective.
- Sales Rank: #2641216 in eBooks
- Published on: 2002-10-17
- Released on: 2002-10-17
- Format: Kindle eBook
Review
"IEmpire Forestry and the Origins of Environmentalism is full of fascinating, well-developed information..." Canadian Society of Environmental Biologists
About the Author
Gregory A. Barton is Professor of British, Colonial and Environmental history at the University of Redlands, California.
Most helpful customer reviews
1 of 1 people found the following review helpful.
One of the leading studies of forestry and environmentalism in the British Empire
By Silvester Percival
Gregory Barton’s study of empire forestry argues that “imperialism and environmentalism have a shared past” that has been obscured by environmental history’s early development in the American historical context, where it was closely associated with Romanticism and the progressive conservation movement. Many scholars have therefore considered environmental history to be in the service of the political Left, a radical and subversive field at odds with exploitative capitalism and “imperial science.” Empire Forestry and the Origins of Environmentalism revises this view by extending the study of environmental history to the nineteenth century and by viewing it from a global perspective that goes beyond the American experience.
Barton is able to make this contribution by viewing forest conservation as an early form of environmentalism. Forest conservation was first implemented on a large scale in India. The movement began in the first decade of the nineteenth century when British leaders demanded the protection of forests in India to preserve a ready supply of timber for the Royal Navy’s campaign in the Napoleonic Wars. The forest committee inquiry established to investigate the availability of Indian “teak” revealed surprisingly limited supplies of timber. The committee delivered a proclamation prohibiting all unauthorized felling of teak trees and declaring all unclaimed lands property of the Crown. Simultaneously, the British government appointed the first conservator of forests in 1806.
Forest conservation efforts lapsed for a generation after the Napoleonic Wars, but by the 1840s British leaders again pursued forest preservation to restore rapidly dwindling timber supplies in India. The administrative and legal structures that became the Indian Forest Department began under the leadership of James Ramsay, Earl of Dalhousie, who served as governor-general from 1848 to 1856. Under his administration, the East India Company and the British government annexed eight states – in several cases to secure access to natural resources – and extended state ownership and regulation to the whole of British India. Among the acquisitions were the forests of northern India. The 1855 “Charter of Indian Forestry” enacted laws to protect the forests from private exploitation by making them the property of the Government, to be properly managed by scientific forestry. This legal precedent was refined and clarified in a succession of acts over the next half century: the Forest Act of 1865, the Hazara Rules of 1875, and the Land Revenue Settlement of 1893.
To return to the connection between empire and environmentalism, it is important to note that while the imperial government often annexed forests for strategic and international reasons, the forest service, according to Barton, generally pursued its aims without regard to the imperial government’s needs for power and revenue. One must wonder if the forest service pursued conservation for the sake of conservation, or whether forestry in India was simply working in the service of the strategic needs of the imperial government, which in the final analysis held ultimate control over reserving land and financing and staffing the forest service. Barton’s thesis may also need revision in the light of Richard Groves’s attempt to locate the origins of environmentalism in the eighteenth century. Despite these two issues, Barton has written an excellent and interesting (if somewhat repetitive) book. And it is hard indeed to dispute his main point that the “monumental achievement” of forest preservation in India “captured the imagination of the period” and inspired similar conservation movements around the world.
4 of 4 people found the following review helpful.
Empire Forestry and the Origins of Environmentalism
By Hanna Steinberg
In this remarkable book, Gregory Barton answers the most important questions that can be asked in environmental history. Where did environmentalism come from? How did it arise? How did it change the earth? How did it change us? Where is the movement going from here? Most environmental history is centered on the United States and misses the global dynamics of the movement. I am sorry to say that many environmental history books share in the general malaise of bad academic writing, or are such a jumble of superfluous footnotes that little meaning can be extracted, even with the most strenuous effort on the part of the reader. This book can not be more different. Empire Forestry and the Origins of Environmentalism place the environmental movement in clear global perspective, giving us the When, Where, Why, and How it all began. It ties together legislation, political propaganda, economics, trade, empire, and of course, forestry, to weave a single explanatory narrative. In this ambitious endeavor, Gregory Barton brilliantly succeeds. The result is a highly readable and convincing argument that introduces a cast of historical actors?wholly forgotten-- that have forever changed the face of the world.
Environmentalism, Barton argues, began in British India. From there it spread to the other colonies and then to the United States. The magnitude of the changes are mind boggling. Lord Dalhousie introduced ?the constitution of environmentalism? in India in 1855, the Forest Charter, decisively changing the status of ?waste land? into government property. This is a key intellectual revolution. Private property?in the absolute sense?had been carved out by the British land owning elite in England in 1688 and is thought by many scholars to be the foundation of the industrial revolution. Barton reveals how the government of British India extended this private concept of absolute property from the individual to the state. Here also is born the concept of ?multi-use,? the idea that government land must be professionally and scientifically managed for the whole national family, peasants, industry, and romantic conservationists alike, a concept that still guides the management of most protected forest areas. The Forest Charter became a model that overcame political opposition to conservation and quickly spread to the other British colonies and the United States.
This book clears away long-standing myths. Victorians were not only conservative--but innovative, practical and romantic all rolled into one. Imperialists were not mere exploiters--the altruism of the Indian foresters who sacrificed health and sometimes their life to preserve nature can be described as nothing less than heroic. Christianity did not postulate a radical divorce between God and nature--most of these early environmental innovators were Christian. Environmentalism did not arrive in the early twentieth century from the American frontier full grown, with murky parentage in the Romantic Movement and pagan country dances. Imperialism mothered environmentalism and gave environmentalism all the nourishment it required to grow--the rule of law, absolute property rights (for individuals and government), police action, romantic concern for nature, concern for global climate stability, and great doses of fair play to ?settle? the conflicting land claims.
A note on the author?s sources. He translates from a variety of languages, and utilizes archives in Europe, the United States, Africa, and the Subcontinent. The book, for all its impressive research, is actually rather short and gives a lot of information for a brief read. But his scholarship doesn?t stand in the way of telling an exciting story. Surprisingly, I learned a fascinating fact about my favorite piece of literature, the Jungle Book, by Rudyard Kipling. I did not know that Kipling wrote his first Mowgli story with Mowgli an adult, discovered by empire foresters in the jungles of India. Kipling wrote a now forgotten short story that preceded the Jungle Book. Mowgli, raised entirely by Mother Nature, became the perfect recruit to join the Queen?s service as an early conservator? an empire forester. With a pension at the end to retire on.
0 of 1 people found the following review helpful.
true to his sources
By ingonyama
I read this book to try to understand the relations between foresters and other arms of government in the British Empire, the history of forestry in the Empire and the dissemination of forestry from India. The book is pretty good on the second count, but not so good on the first. Barton scarcely mentions the relations between forestry and other departments -- the reason for this seems to be that he stays very true to his sources, in a way that verges on uncritical: foresters' analysis e.g. of shifting cultivation are taken as accurate, unproblematically and without attention to either the cultural/political lenses of foresters or the many reevaluations of the ecology of such practices. I'd like more context, and a more critical reading of his (almost exclusively official) sources.
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